Wednesday, March 18, 2020
The Thirty Tyrants After the Peloponnesian War
The Thirty Tyrants After the Peloponnesian War Athens is the birthplace of democracy, a process that went through various stages and setbacks until it reached its signature form under Pericles (462-431 B.C.). Pericles was the famous leader of the Athenians at the start of the Peloponnesian War (431-404)... and the great plague at the start of it that killed Pericles. At the end of that war, when Athens surrendered, democracy was replaced by the oligarchic rule of the Thirty Tyrants (hoi triakonta) (404-403), but radical democracy returned. This was a terrible period for Athens and part of Greeces downward slide that led to its takeover by Philip of Macedon and his son Alexander. Spartan Hegemony From 404-403 B.C., at the start of a longer period known as the Spartan Hegemony, which lasted from 404-371 B.C., hundreds of Athenians were killed, thousands exiled, and the number of the citizens was severely reduced until Athens Thirty Tyrants were overthrown by an exiled Athenian general, Thrasybulus. Athens' Surrender After the Peloponnesian War Athens strength had once been her navy. To protect themselves from attack by Sparta, the people of Athens had built the Long Walls. Sparta couldnt risk letting Athens become strong again, so it demanded stringent concessions at the end of the Peloponnesian War. According to the terms of Athens surrender to Lysander, the Long Walls and fortifications of the Piraeus were destroyed, the Athenian fleet was lost, exiles were recalled, and Sparta assumed command of Athens. Oligarchy Replaces Democracy Sparta imprisoned the chief leaders of Athens democracy and nominated a body of thirty local men (the Thirty Tyrants) to rule Athens and frame a new, oligarchic constitution. It is a mistake to think all Athenians were unhappy. Many in Athens favored oligarchy over democracy. Later, the pro-democratic faction did restore democracy, but only through force. Reign of Terror The Thirty Tyrants, under the leadership of Critias, appointed a Council of 500 to serve the judicial functions formerly belonging to all the citizens. (In democratic Athens, juries might be composed of hundreds or thousands of citizens without a presiding judge.) They appointed ​a police force and a group of 10 to guard the Piraeus. They granted only 3000 citizens a right to trial and to bear arms. All other Athenian citizens could be condemned without a trial by the Thirty Tyrants. This effectively deprived the Athenians of their citizenship. The Thirty Tyrants executed criminals and leading Democrats, as well as others ​who were considered unfriendly to the new oligarchic regime. Those in power condemned their fellow Athenians for the sake of greed to confiscate their property. Leading citizens drank state-sentenced poison hemlock. The period of the Thirty Tyrants was a reign of terror. Socrates Apposes Athens Many consider Socrates the wisest of the Greeks, and he fought on the side of Athens against Sparta during the Peloponnesian War, so his possible involvement with the Spartan-backed Thirty Tyrants is surprising. Unfortunately, the sage didnt write, so historians have speculated about his missing biographical details. Socrates got into trouble at the time of the Thirty Tyrants but was not punished until later. He had taught some of the tyrants. They may have counted on his support, but he refused to participate in the capture of Leon of Salamis, whom the thirty wished to execute. The End of the Thirty Tyrants Meanwhile, other Greek cities, dissatisfied with the Spartans, were offering their support to the men exiled by the Thirty Tyrants. The exiled Athenian general Thrasybulus seized the Athenian fort at Phyle, with the help of the Thebans, and then took the Piraeus, in the spring of 403. Critias was killed. The Thirty Tyrants became fearful and sent to Sparta for help, but the Spartan king rejected Lysanders bid to support the Athenian oligarchs, and so the 3000 citizens were able to depose the terrible thirty. After the Thirty Tyrants were deposed, democracy was restored to Athens. Sources The Thirty at Athens in the Summer of 404, by Rex Stem. Phoenix, Vol. 57, No. 1/2 (Spring-Summer, 2003), pp. 18-34.Socrates on Obedience and Justice, by Curtis Johnson. The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 43, No. 4 (Dec. 1990), pp. 719-740.Socrates as Political Partisan, by Neal Wood. Canadian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 7, No. 1 (Mar. 1974), pp. 3-31.
Monday, March 2, 2020
French Passive Voice †La voix passive
French Passive Voice - La voix passive Voice is a grammatical term which indicates the relationship between a subject and verb. There are three different voices in French and English. In the passive voice, the action described by the verb is being done to the subject by an agent, which is usually introduced by one of two prepositions:1. When the verb expresses an action, the agent is introduced by the preposition par:Active voice   David fait le mà ©nage.   David is doing the housework.Passive voice   Le mà ©nage est fait par David.   The housework is done by David.Active voice   Lise lit le livre.   Lise is reading the book.Passive voice   Le livre est lu par Lise.   The book is read by Lise.2. When the verb expresses a state of being, the agent is either introduced by de or left out entirely:Active voice   Tout le monde le respecte.   Everyone respects him.Passive voice   Il est respectà © de tout le monde.   He is respected by everyone.   Il est à ©minemment respectà ©.   He is highly respected.Active voice   Mes amis aiment ma mà ¨re.    My friends love my mother.Passive voice   Ma mà ¨re est aimà ©e de mes amis.   My mother is loved by my friends. How to Conjugate the French Passive Voice The passive voice is formed with the conjugated verb à ªtre the past participle. The past participle has to agree with the subject, not the agent, in gender and number, just like à ªtre verbs in the passà © composà ©Ã‚ (more about agreement):   Le livre est à ©crit par des lycà ©ens.   The book is written by high schoolers.   La vaisselle est faite par Henri.   The dishes are done by Henri.   Les enfants sont nourris par Luc.   The kids are fed by Luc. To use the French passive voice in any other tense or mood, just conjugate à ªtre accordingly: Active voice Passive voice prsent Anne fait la tarte.Anne makes the pie. La tarte est faite par Anne.The pie is made by Anne. pass compos Anne a fait la tarte.Anne made the pie. La tarte a t faite par Anne.The pie was made by Anne. imparfait Anne faisait la tarte.Anne was making the pie. La tarte tait faite par Anne.The pie was being made by Anne. futur Anne fera la tarte.Anne will make the pie. La tarte sera faite par Anne.The pie will be made by Anne. subjonctif Je veux quAnne fasse la tarte. I want Anne to make the pie. Je veux que la tarte soit faite par Anne.I want the pie to be made by Anne. How to Use the French Passive Voice Now that you know about prepositions and agents and how to conjugate the passive voice, its on to more practical matters. The French passive voice may be used for two reasons:A) To put more emphasis on the person or thing performing the action:Active: Un enfant a à ©crit ce livre. - A child wrote this book.Passive: Ce livre a à ©tà © à ©crit par un enfant. - This book was written by a child.B) To focus on an action without identifying the performer:    Jean a à ©crit ce livre. - Jean wrote this book.   vs    Il a à ©tà © à ©crit en 1927. - It was written in 1927. How to Avoid the French Passive Voice The French passive voice has a slightly formal or literary tone and is used less frequently than in English. There are several alternatives to the passive voice (besides the active voice): A) To focus on the performer, use cest:    Ce livre a à ©tà © à ©crit par un enfant. Cest un enfant qui a à ©crit ce livre.   This book was written by a child. Its a child who wrote this book.    Le record a à ©tà © battu par une femme. Cest une femme qui a battu le record.   The record was beaten by a woman. Its a woman who beat the record.B) To avoid identifying the performer, there are two options:    1. On (impersonal subject pronoun)    Ce livre a à ©tà © à ©crit en 1927. On a à ©crit ce livre en 1927.   This book was written in 1927.    Ils ont à ©tà © pardonnà ©s. On les a pardonnà ©s.   They have been excused.    2. Se (passive reflexive)    Ce livre est souvent lu. Ce livre se lit souvent.   This book is often read.    Les mà »res ne sont pas vendues ici. Les mà »res ne se vendent pas ici.Â Â à ‚ Blackberries arent sold here.
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